AN ANALYSIS OF LECTURER TALK DURING TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Researching teacher talk during teaching and learning process of English is essential because it offers practical implications for the improvement of teaching and learning process. However, there are still few studies which try to compare types of talk used by lecturers who teach content and skill subjects. This research investigates the types and the dominant types of lecturer talk during the teaching and learning process at an English Education Department. The participants were two English lecturers at a private University in Malang who taught Vocabulary (skill subject) and Poetry (content subject) classes. The researchers used an audio recorder to record the utterances by the lecturers. The data were analyzed qualitatively by using FIAC (Flanders Interaction Analysis Category). The types of lecturer talk produced by the lecturer who taught Vocabulary were Ask question, Give direction, Give lecture, Accept or use students’ idea, Praise or encourage, and Criticize or justify authority. The types of lecturer talk produced by the lecturer who taught Poetry were Give lecture, Ask question, Accept or use students’ idea, Give direction, Praise or encourage, and Criticize or justify authority. The most dominant types of talk produced by the lecturer who taught Vocabulary were Ask question and Give direction but Give lecture was the most dominant types of talk produced by the lecturer who taught Poetry. This finding indicates that types of course taught by lecturers affect the kinds of talk produced by the lecturers.


INTRODUCTION
Teacher talk is important and cannot be separated from the teaching and learning process. Teachers' explanation is still considered as the most important part of the teaching and learning process. Through the teachers' explanation, students can understand the lesson, but some teachers just give lecturing without giving questions to the students. Asking a question to students is important. A teacher can find out how far the students understand the lesson being taught by asking a question. When the students have answered the question, the teacher should give praise, receive, and repeat the answer at the same time the teacher corrects the answer from the students. This will provide variations in the teaching and learning process because the explanation or example is not only from the teacher but also from the idea of the students themselves.

JIBS  52
JURNAL ILMIAH BAHASA DAN SASTRA Volume 6 Nomor 2 Tahun 2019 eISSN : 25494155 -pISSN : 23557083 According to Allwright and Bailey (1991), talk is still an important aspect in the teaching and learning process not only because it is one of the main ways of conveying information but also because it is an essential means to control students' learning behavior. Ellis (1985) defines that teacher talk is the special language that the teacher uses when addressing L2 to the learners in the classroom. Teacher talk can be useful and applicable language practice that gives the benefit to the learner. Teachers and learners use their talks to interact with each other.
This research used Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (in Aisyah, 2016) as the theoretical foundation in analyzing teacher or lecturer talk, which divide the talk into seven categories, i.e., Accept feeling, Praise or encourage, Accept or uses students' idea, Ask question, Give lecture, Give direction, and Criticize and Justify authority.

Accept Feeling
Accepting students' feelings can build a classroom environment that supports the teaching and learning process as well as gives confidence and engage students in the teaching and learning process. Here is the example of accepts feeling category: Lecturer : Why are you sad Toni? Student : Sir, I lost my pocket money Lecturer : Well, that is enough to make one sad, but cheer up, a replacement will come up.

Praise or Encourage
A teacher or lecturer should praise or encourage the students when they have good behavior or when they answer the question; it will make the students feel more confident so they will try to answer the question when the teacher or lecturer asks questions again. Here is the example of praise or encourage category: Lecturer : Can you give the example of preposition? Student : He sat on chair.
Lecturer : Yes, he sat on chair. Good.

Accept Or Uses Students' Idea
When students' idea is accepted or used by the teacher or lecturer, the students will feel that the teacher appreciate them, and the students will have the courage to deliver their idea again. It will be different when the teacher or lecturer does not accept or use students' ideas; the student will think that his or her answer is unacceptable, so the student would not have the courage to deliver his or her idea again. Here is the example of accepting or using students' idea category:

Ask Question
Asking questions can be a way to make students speak up. When the students answer that question, the teacher or lecturer will know how far the students understand the topic. There is a moment when he/she asks a question to his/her students, but the teacher or lecturer does not wait for the answer from the students and keep going on their lecture without receiving any answers, this is not included in this category (Flanders, in Aisyah 2016). Here is the example of ask question category: Lecturer : OK, now we will talk about the first topic in your book. Open your book. Boys, where is your book?

Give Lecture
Lecturing is one of the main classroom activities where a teacher or lecturer gives information or instruction to the students. Here is the example of giving lecture category: Lecturer : The first about noun. Noun is a thing and nouns are the basic building blocks of sentences. These things can represent a person, animal, place, idea, emotion, almost anything that you can think of.

Give Direction
Students need some direction from their teacher or lecturer to do their duty or some activities in the classroom to prevent misunderstanding. Here is the example of giving direction category: Lecturer : OK, now we will talk about the first topic in your book. Open your book, page. Open page 5.

Criticize And Justify Authority
The teacher or lecturer should make a statement intended to change students' behavior from non-acceptable to acceptable patterns. Critics should not hurt and make the student down.
Here is the example of criticizing and justifying authority category: Lecturer : Because this is homework, I have told you to make it in your home not here Several studies have been conducted to investigate teacher talk, for example, Purwadi (2016), Tyas (2016), andPutri (2015). In general, these studies found that certain types of talk are largely dominant in the EFL Indonesian contexts such as Praise or Encourage and Ask Question. This finding may indicate that teachers still have very dominant roles during the teaching and learning process of EFL, particularly in those contexts of studies. However, those previous studies were generally conducted in a relatively lower level of education institutions, such as elementary school, junior and senior high schools, and not university level. University students are usually able to do independent learning and JIBS  54 JURNAL ILMIAH BAHASA DAN SASTRA Volume 6 Nomor 2 Tahun 2019 eISSN : 25494155 -pISSN : 23557083 critical thinking better. Therefore, the lecturers may give more opportunities for university students to talk more and have discussions rather than giving lectures in which the lecturers talk less.
Based on the explanation above, the objectives of this study are to find out the types and the dominant types of talk that are used by the lecturers during the teaching and learning process of content and skill subjects. In the context of the present study, content subject is broadly defined as a course that focuses more on the delivery and mastery of knowledge, which includes courses like Poetry, Prose, etc. Meanwhile, skill subject refers to a course that gives more emphasis on how students acquire specific skills after a teaching and learning process has been provided, which include courses like Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing.
Based on the background of the study above, this research would address the following questions: 1. What are the dominant types of talk that are used by the lecturers during the teaching and learning process of content and skill subjects? 2. Do the English lecturers use similar types of talk when teaching content and skill subjects?

METHOD
This research employed a descriptive qualitative approach. The main focus of this research was on describing the phenomenon of language use in teaching that is lecturer talk. The research was conducted at a private University in Malang. The participants of the research were two English lecturers at the University. The object of this research was the lecturers' talk during the teaching and learning process of content and skill courses: Vocabulary and Poetry. The researchers came to each class and did the observation for three times. The observation was conducted from the second meeting until the fourth meeting from sixteen meetings planned by the lecturer for each course. Each course in each class has two credits. The teaching and learning process took for 90 to 100 minutes for each meeting. In this research, the students were not involved as participants. All the students' activities during the teaching and learning process would not be analyzed because this research only focused on the lecturers' talk.
After collected, the data were transcribed and coded to identify the frequency of occurrence of each type of talk and the most and least dominant types of talk used by the participants. This study adopted data analysis procedures developed by Miles and Huberman (1994:10), which consists of four steps of activity: data reduction, data display, conclusion drawing, and verification. For the Data reduction step, the researchers used datasheets to help them in identifying, coding, and analyzing the data. In this research, the data were presented in the form of a table and description with the purpose of knowing the dominant types of talk that were used by the lecturers. For conclusion drawing and verification, the data which have been analyzed were read and re-read to develop the conclusion from the findings. The conclusion was verified by revisiting the data as many times as necessary. Verification was eISSN : 25494155 -pISSN : 23557083 done through expert validation. The researchers gave raw analysis to the triangulator. After that, the triangulator would check the analysis. If there were problems with the raw analysis, the researchers would follow the triangulator's suggestions. The result of the validation process showed that the process of lecturer talk identification and analysis was appropriate.

FINDINGS
In general, this study found six types of talk used by the lecturers, those are (1) praise or encourage, (2) accept or use students' idea, (3) ask question, (4) give lecture, (5) give direction, and (6) criticize or justify authority. From the six types of lecturer talk above, it was found that ask question was the most dominant type of talk used by the two participants disregarding the types of courses they taught. Meanwhile, the least type of lecturer talk used was criticize or justify authority.
From the seven types of teacher talk as proposed by Flanders (in Aisyah, 2016), six types were found in this study: (1) praise or encourage, (2) accept or use students' idea, (3) ask question, (4) give lecture, (5) give direction, and (6) criticize or justify authority. Although there was similarity in terms of the types of lecturer talk used by the two participants, it was also found differences between participant one who taught Vocabulary and participant two who taught Poetry. Table 1 below lists the types and the dominant type of talk used by participant one who taught Vocabulary and participant two who taught Poetry. As listed in Table 1 above, the orders of types of talk produced by participant one are: (1) Ask question, (2) Give direction, (3) Give lecture, (4) Accept or use students' idea, (5) Praise or encourage, and (6) Criticize or justify authority. Meanwhile, the orders of types of talk produced by participant two are: (1) Give lecture, (2) Ask question, (3) Accept or use students' idea, (4) Give direction, (5) Praise or encourage, and (6) Criticize or justify authority. The researchers did not find Accept feeling type of talk used by the two participants.
Considering only the number of occurrences during the teaching and learning process (the sum of all lecturers' talks recorded by the researchers), Ask question was the most dominant type of lecturer talk. Meanwhile, the least type of lecturer talk was Criticize or Justify authority. However, when a comparison was made between participant one and participant two concerning the number of each type of talk that they used during the teaching and learning process, differences emerged. In Vocabulary class, the lecturer used dominantly Ask question and Give direction talk types during the teaching and learning process. In Poetry class, the lecturer dominantly produced Give lecture during the teaching and learning process. The following sections provide detailed findings of the dominant types of talk (first and second-order from the list presented in Table 1) produced by lecturer one and lecturer two.

Ask Question
In this research, the researchers found that Ask question was the first dominant type of talk in the teaching and learning process of Vocabulary class with 31% and 35 utterances. Below are the utterances which were produced by the lecturer during the teaching and learning process in Vocabulary classroom. Please note that the statement printed in regular form is the initial sentence or statement before the lecturer Asked question. The italic utterances are the act of Asked question. Based on the data above, the lecturer told two new vocabularies and asked the students to differentiate the meaning of the two vocabularies. It is useful to increase the students' vocabulary. Based on the data above, the lecturer asked the students to give the example of verb. It is to examine the students' knowledge about the example of verb. As the data above show, after the lecturer read the first question the lecturer directly asked the function of has in that sentence.

Example 4:
Lecturer : Now, we will talk about comparative and superlative also singular and plural noun. What is that? (AQ) Based on the data above, the lecturer asked the students about a new topic in this meeting.

Give Direction
Give direction was the second dominant type of talk in teaching and learning process of Vocabulary class with 31% and 35 utterances. Below are the utterances which were produced by the lecturer during the teaching and learning process. Statements printed in italic are the act of Give direction. Based on the data above, the lecturer commanded her student to find out the characteristics of a good sentence and read it. In other words, the lecturer directed the students to read the characteristics of a good sentence.
Example 2: Lecturer : You need to classify the word, is it to be, linking, adverb, helping, or action. Based on the data above, the lecturer directed the students to classify the word in that exercise. Based on the data above, the lecturer asked the students to open the book in page 30 and did the exercise before the class ended. Based on the data above, the lecturer gave the instruction for their quiz to diminish the misunderstanding.

Give Lecture
The researchers found that Give lecture was the first dominant type of talk in the teaching and learning process of Poetry class with 39% and 73 utterances. Below are the utterances which were produced by the lecturer during the teaching and learning process in Poetry class. To recall, the italic utterances are the act of Give lecture.
Example 1: Lecturer : Elevated language sounds poetic because it uses literary device such as metaphor, simile, or allusion.

It is not the way we speak in normal life (GL).
Based on the data above, the lecturer explained to the students about elevated language.
Example 2: Lecturer : The story belongs to epic is a hero. What else the story belong to epic? Based on the data above, the lecturer explained the characteristic from the story of epic.

Lecturer : Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets. Among this number, sonnets number 1-126 is for a (man/men) and 127-154 is for a (woman/women). The number is not clear yet because he refer to the woman as dark lady. So the girl must be mysterious (GL).
Based on the data above, the lecturer explained the total of Shakespeare sonnets.

Example 4:
Lecturer : For the next step, to be able to understand the poem. You need to be able to understand the diction. First you have to know the denotation and second it's the connotation (GL).
Based on the data above, the lecturer told and explained the third step to analyze poem. Ask question was the second dominant type of talk in the teaching and learning process of Poetry class with 36% and 67 utterances. Below are the utterances which were produced by the lecturer during the teaching and learning process in Poetry class. Please note that the utterances printed in italic are the act of Ask question.

Ask
Example 1: Lecturer : There are a lot of emotions in poetry. In poetry you are free to express your feeling or emotion.
Lecturer : Do you feel sad when reading a research article? Can you feel sad, happy, etc. in poetry? (AQ) Based on the data above, the lecturer gave some question to prove that there are a lot of emotions in poetry. The lecturer perhaps, wanted to make the students imagined what they felt when they read poetry.
Example 2: Lecturer : Last two weeks I have explain to you there are three types of traditional genres of poetry, they are: narrative, lyric, and dramatic. So, for today we are going to the next types. What is it? (AQ) As the data above show, the lecturer told three types of traditional genres. By doing this the lecturer perhaps, wanted the students to remember that they have learned in the previous meeting. Then, she asked about the topic of discus for the current meeting.
Example 3: Lecturer : It's very close to song because of the word lyric, but lyric poetry is not a song. However, the history of lyric poetry is started from Greece.
Lecturer : Do you know where Greece is? (AQ) As the data above show, the lecturer asked about Greece the place where lyric poetry started. By asking these questions, the lecturer probably wanted her students to imagine that Greece is in Europe, a place far away and a country which has a different tradition from English. Based on the data above, the lecturer asked one by one the student about the theme of their own poem.

DISCUSSION
In general, different orders and frequency of lecturer talk used by participant one and participant two were revealed in this research. In Vocabulary class (participant one), the lecturer produced six types of lecturer talk: Ask question, Give direction, Give lecture, Accept These differences could be the result of the different types of courses taught by the lecturers. Participant one who taught Vocabulary (skill subject) perhaps needs to ask some questions to the students to show how far the students have mastered vocabulary. Then, the lecturer needs to give some directions to the students to prevent misunderstanding when they did the tasks and activities in the classroom. Meanwhile, Poetry class is a content subject, so the lecturer needs to give lectures to explain many topics to the students.
In other words, the lecturers may have different assumptions and strategies in teaching which are suited to the types or characteristics of the course they teach. Since vocabulary is a skill subject, participant one may give more focus or emphasis on how the students master the vocabulary. Therefore, it is logical that she asked lots of questions to the students during the teaching and learning process. Meanwhile, participant two who taught Poetry (content subject) gave lectures quite a lot. It is perhaps because she wants to emphasize how the students understand the basic concepts of English poetry and cover the materials required by the course.
The results of this study support the result of the previous study conducted by Purwadi (2016) in terms of the number and types of teacher talk used during the teaching and learning process. Those types of talk include (1) Praise or encourage, (2) Repeat students' response verbatim, (3) Ask question, (4) Give information, (5) Give direction, and (6) Criticize students' behavior. However, in terms of the orders, the results of Purwadi's (2016) research are different from this study. Purwadi (2016) who researched Junior High School found that Praise or encourage was the type of talk dominantly used by the three teachers in his research. This finding could be because of the students' level of education. The teachers in Purwadi's (2016) research perhaps give more emphasis on how to motivate their students to learn English. Therefore, they gave praises and encouragement to study English. As we understood, students in Junior High School are usually beginners in studying English and have relatively low English proficiency. The different findings between the present study and Purwadi's (2016) study can also indicate that levels of English proficiency and level of education may also give an influence on the dominant type of talk produced by teachers or lecturers.
The researchers also found the similarity of the most dominant type of teacher or lecturer talk between the previous study (Putri, 2015) and the present study. Ask question was the most dominant type of talk found in the previous study and the present study. The materials taught in Senior High School are usually focused on skill rather than on content.
That is why the teacher should give questions to know how far the students understand and acquire the skill of English.